The discovery of iron, nickel, and cobalt: from antiquity to modern technologies

Metals play a fundamental role in the development of human civilization. From the first copper ornaments to complex precision alloys — their history reflects humanity’s path from the Stone Age to the world of high technology. The PZPS plant works with metals whose discovery became a milestone in science and technology: iron, nickel, and cobalt. We recount how they were discovered, what they enabled humanity to achieve — and how they are used today.

Metals in human history

The use of metals in different historical eras contributed to technological progress, the growth of industry, and the expansion of human capabilities. The history of mastering metals can be conditionally divided into the following key periods:

1. Stone Age (before 6000 BCE) — metals were not yet used; stone was the main material for tools and weapons.
2. Age of the first metals (about 6000–3000 BCE) — humans began to use copper and gold found native in nature. These metals were easy to forge and were used for ornaments, ritual objects, and simple tools.
3. Bronze Age (about 3000–1200 BCE) — the appearance of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was a breakthrough: products became stronger and more durable, which fostered agriculture, crafts, and warfare.
4. Iron Age (from 1200 BCE) — mass use of iron displaced bronze and opened a new era in architecture, warfare, and infrastructure.
5. Middle Ages and the Renaissance — discovery of new alloys and improvement of smelting and metalworking methods spurred shipbuilding, arms production, and crafts.
6. Industrial Revolution (18th–19th centuries) — invention of new methods of smelting and processing of metals, such as puddling and rolling, made possible mass production of metal goods. This became the foundation for mechanical engineering, rail transport, and other industries.
7. Modern era — advances in chemistry, physics, and materials science made it possible to create dozens of new alloys, including precision and heat-resistant ones used in aviation, space technology, microelectronics, medicine, nuclear power, and other high-tech fields.

Metals became the basis of the transition from manual labor to modern technologies and had an enormous influence on the development of human civilization, promoting progress in science, the economy, and culture.

Iron: the metal that changed civilization

Ancient references and first finds

The use of iron began even before the Iron Age. The earliest artifacts, dated to the 4th millennium BCE, were made from meteoritic iron, noted for high strength and purity. However, the metal became widespread only with the start of the Iron Age (about 1200 BCE), when it began to be actively used for tools, weapons, and housewares.

Geography of adoption

Ancient Egypt

In Ancient Egypt iron was used from early times, but mainly as meteoritic iron. Egyptians called it “white copper” and made valuable objects and ornaments from it. As ironworking technologies developed, it began to be used for weapons and tools.

Mesopotamia

In Mesopotamia iron was also known in an early period. Assyrians and Babylonians used it for weapons and armor, which gave them an advantage in military conflicts.

China

In China iron became known at roughly the same time as in other regions. Chinese craftsmen developed their own ironworking methods, including the use of cast iron. From iron they made agricultural tools, weapons, and various household items.

Influence on the development of civilization

Iron (Fe) became a key element of technological progress. Iron tools raised labor productivity and fostered growth in agriculture and urbanization. Iron weapons and armor gave an advantage in military conflicts, leading to territorial expansion and the formation of new states. And the use of iron in construction contributed to infrastructure development.

Nickel: the “copper devil” that became a strategic metal

Nickel is a chemical element denoted Ni in the periodic table. The history of its discovery and use goes back to deep antiquity. The first mentions of nickel can be found in ancient texts describing ores containing this metal. However, nickel in pure form was isolated much later.

History of discovery

Until the 18th century, minerals containing nickel were confused with copper ores. Miners called nickel “kupfernickel” — “copper deceiver” or “devil” — because its ores, outwardly similar to copper ores, did not yield copper when smelted. This led to disappointment among miners and metallurgists. 

Only in 1751 did the Swedish chemist Axel Cronstedt isolate a new element from nickel ore and name it after the mythical mountain spirit Nickel, who, according to legend, confused miners, making them find barren rock instead of valuable metals.

Properties of nickel and its importance for industry

Nickel is a strong, silver-white metal resistant to corrosion thanks to an oxide film that forms on its surface and protects the metal from the environment. It forms alloys with iron, chromium, copper, and other metals. These alloys have improved mechanical and chemical properties, making them indispensable in:

• aviation and automotive industry;
• battery production;
• electrical engineering and electroplating;
• the chemical industry.

In addition, nickel plays an important role in jewelry. Thanks to its ductility and ability to take various shapes, it is used to create ornaments and decorative articles.

Nickel production: methods and technologies

Producing nickel is a complex process that includes several stages. The main methods of obtaining nickel are:

• Hydrometallurgical method is based on dissolving nickel ores in acids or other solvents with subsequent recovery of nickel from the solution. This method yields high-purity nickel and is widely used in industry.
• Pyrometallurgical method involves smelting nickel ores in special furnaces at high temperatures. During smelting, nickel is reduced from its oxides using carbon or other reducing agents. The resulting nickel then undergoes additional processing to increase its purity.

Modern technologies make it possible to obtain nickel with a high degree of purification and various physicochemical properties, making it an indispensable material for a wide range of needs — from electronics to the defense industry.

Cobalt: a metal of the future from the legends of the past

Origin of the name and history of discovery

Cobalt (Co) is one of the most sought-after and promising metals of the 21st century. The name “cobalt” comes from the German word “kobold” — “goblin” or “mine spirit.” In the Middle Ages miners believed that ore containing cobalt brought only trouble: valuable metals could not be smelted from it, and fumes on heating poisoned the air. Only in 1735 did the Swedish chemist Georg Brandt first isolate pure cobalt from Saxon ore and prove that it was an independent chemical element.

First applications: glass and paints

Long before its chemical discovery, cobalt was used to color glass a deep blue. Archaeological finds confirm that ancient Egyptians and Venetians knew of this property of cobalt-bearing minerals. However, the exact composition of the “secret” paint was not revealed until the 18th century. It is cobalt oxide — the active substance that gives the deep blue color — that underlies the famous “zaffer.”

Industrial importance and key application areas

Today cobalt is an indispensable component in a number of industries. Its unique physicochemical properties have made it sought after in many high-tech directions.

Metallurgy and alloying alloys

Cobalt is widely used in the production of:

• Tool materials — tungsten-carbide-based alloys in which cobalt acts as a binder provide high wear resistance and strength.
• Powder metallurgy — cobalt powder of grade PK-1u is used in hard alloys that extend the life of cutting tools.
• Surface coatings — applying a cobalt layer to the working surfaces of drills, mills, and taps substantially extends product service life.

Using cobalt in metallurgy makes it possible to produce materials that combine hardness, resistance to thermal loads, and corrosion resistance. These qualities are especially important for the aviation and defense industries.

Energy and batteries

The industrial boom of the 21st century is impossible without cobalt. It has become a central element in the production of lithium-ion batteries — a key technology for:

• smartphones and laptops;
• electric vehicles;
• portable devices;
• energy storage systems.

The reason is the ability of lithium–cobalt oxide (LiCoO₂) not only to provide high energy density but also to prevent battery overheating. Thanks to the discoveries of Japanese chemist Koichi Mizushima, the industry developed rapidly. Demand for cobalt has increased nearly tenfold since the early 2000s.

Cobalt makes batteries not only efficient but also safe. This is especially important for transport and next-generation energy storage systems.

Medicine and biotechnology

In medicine cobalt is used in the production of:

• Dental and orthopedic prostheses — its alloys resist aggressive environments and offer high strength.
• Cardiac stents — material stability in the body ensures long service life.
• Magnetic attachments for dental prostheses — the magnetic properties of cobalt compounds make it possible to forgo traditional clasps.

Although magnetic attachments have not yet become widespread due to incompatibility with MRI, their convenience has already been confirmed in clinical trials.

Prospects for application in the 21st century

Today cobalt is actively used in the development of:

• organic solar cells;
• catalysts for water splitting;
• artificial photosynthesis systems.

In solar cells, cobalt compounds are used as electron carriers. Experiments have shown that such systems are stable, efficient, and cheaper than analogues based on platinum or ruthenium. In addition, cobalt compounds have shown high activity as catalysts for producing hydrogen — an alternative fuel of the future.

Cobalt has already proved indispensable in various industries. But the future holds even larger tasks for it:

• Development of renewable energy and energy storage systems.
• Creation of compact, powerful magnets for microsystems.
• Integration into nanotechnology and biodegradable catalysts.
• Use in “artificial leaves” for sustainable production of hydrogen and organic substances.
• Application in smart medicine: implantable sensors controlled by a magnetic field.

Cobalt’s potential is a bridge between our technological capabilities today and an energy-clean, mobile, and intelligent tomorrow.

Iron, nickel, and cobalt in the production of precision alloys

Based on iron, nickel, and cobalt, PZPS creates alloys with unique properties. These materials are used in the most demanding fields: aviation, instrument making, medicine, and defense.

Precision soft magnetic alloys

They have low coercivity and high magnetic permeability and are used in transformers, sensors, and magnetic shields.

• 50N, 50NP — iron–nickel alloys, composition: about 50% Ni, 50% Fe.
• 79NM, 81NMA — nickel alloys containing 79–81% Ni.
• 49K2FA-VI, 27KKh — iron–cobalt alloys containing 49% and 27% Co respectively.

Alloys with specified elastic properties

Used in precision mechanisms, gyroscopes, watches, and sensors.

• 40KKhNM — consists of about 40% cobalt and 16% nickel.
• 36NKhTYu — an iron-based alloy containing about 36% nickel.

Alloys with high electrical resistivity

Suitable for resistors, heating elements, and current stabilizers.

• Kh15N60-N — contains 60% nickel.
• Kh20N80-N — consists of 80% nickel.

Alloys with a specified coefficient of linear thermal expansion (CTE)

Used in electronics, micromechanics, and systems with high positioning accuracy.

• 29NK — the alloy composition includes 29% nickel and 17.5% cobalt.
• 36N, 42N — contain 36% and 42% nickel respectively.

Heat-resistant alloys

Retain mechanical properties at high temperatures.

• KhN78T — a nickel alloy for extreme operating conditions.

The history of iron, nickel, and cobalt is the history of technical progress. Today they form the basis of precision materials without which modern production is unimaginable. The PZPS plant continues this tradition, turning millennia of knowledge into high-precision solutions for the future: more than 50 grades of precision alloys and special steels, innovative compositions and technologies, property research under various operating conditions — all of this shapes the face of modern metallurgy.